Ancient Greek Cosmology During the Biblical Time of Paul’s Missions c. 50 CE
Helios relief from temple of Athena, Ilion (Troy). Pergamon Museum, Berlin.
Ancient Greek Cosmology up to 50 CE: Philosophers, Astronomers, and Myths Shaping the Universe
The ancient Greeks' view of the universe was not just a scientific venture but a profound philosophical and mythological exploration. The cosmos, which comes from the Greek word kosmos (order), was seen as an orderly system of perfection that was governed by reason, natural laws, and divine principles. Their cosmology was a blend of myth, philosophy, and early scientific observation, influencing thought for centuries to come.
The key structural elements include:
Key Philosophers, Astronomers, and Mathematicians
Thales of Miletus (c. 624–546 BC): Often considered the first philosopher. He is also considered one of the first cosmologists, he posited that water was the fundamental substance of the universe.
Anaximander (c. 610–546 BC): Introduced the idea of the Earth floating unsupported and being disc-shaped suspended in space.
Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BC): Introduced the concept of cosmic harmony and the idea that the universe was governed by mathematical relationships. His school introduced the concept of the "harmony of the spheres," where celestial bodies create musical tones.
Plato (c. 427–347 BC): His dialogues, particularly "Timaeus," describe a cosmos that is ordered by a divine craftsman, the Demiurge. He advocated for a rational universe.
Aristotle (384–322 BC): Developed a geocentric model with Earth at the center, surrounded by celestial spheres. His model included the sublunary realm (belonging to this world in contrast to the higher spiritual realms) elements of earth, water, air, and fire, distinct from the celestial realm of aether. He emphasized empirical observation.
Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 408–355 BC): Advanced spherical astronomy with his systematic concept of concentric spheres to explain celestial motions.
Eratosthenes (276–194 BCE): Calculated the Earth's circumference, demonstrating the Greeks' advanced scientific methods.
Hipparchus (c. 190–120 BC): Known as the "father of astronomy," he developed a star catalog and discovered the precession of the equinoxes. Hipparchus's work slightly post-dates the 50 CE cutoff but was foundational for later Greek astronomy.
Posidonius (c. 135–51 BC): A Stoic philosopher who contributed to astronomy by refining the measuring of the Earth's circumference first done by Eratosthenes.
Framework and Structure of the Cosmos
Geocentric Universe: Earth is the center of the universe. This model, which was later refined by Aristotle, continued until the heliocentric model was introduced by Copernicus in 1543.
Spherical Universe: The cosmos was thought to be a finite, spherical entity, with everything beyond the stars being the realm of the divine or the void.
Concentric Spheres: The spheres all share the same center, one inside the other. Meaning that these layers are perfectly aligned, like nested circles.
Celestial Spheres: These were believed to hold the stars, planets, and other celestial bodies in place, often moving in specific patterns rotating around the earth. They were often envisioned as transparent or ethereal layers through which the heavens and divine forces could be experienced or understood.
Four Elements: Everything in the physical world was composed of earth, water, air, and fire, proposed by Empedocles.
Mathematical Harmony: Pythagoras introduced the idea that the cosmos operated on mathematical principles, where celestial movements reflected harmony.
How It Functions
Ancient Greeks viewed the cosmos as a living entity that was governed by natural laws and divine will:
Divine Order: The cosmos operated under the governance of divine or rational principles, whether by Plato's Demiurge or the Stoic concept of logos.
Celestial Mechanics: Celestial bodies were believed to move in perfect harmony, their motions predictable by laws or divine will.
Circular Motion: Aristotle theorized that the heavens moved in perfectly circular orbits, an eternal motion driven by an "unmoved mover" (a divine force).
Empirical Observation: Astronomers like Hipparchus meticulously tracked celestial phenomena. He studied the predictability of planetary movements.
Mythic Explanation: Myths complemented observations by offering spiritual explanations for natural occurrences, like the rising and setting of the sun.
Cosmic Order: The concentric spheres symbolized order, harmony, and the divine arrangement of the universe, with each layer moving in a controlled, regular motion.
Spiritual Journey: In some interpretations, the spheres represented the journey of the soul or spirit, rising through levels of reality or moving closer to the divine, with the innermost sphere being closest to the Earth (or human experience) and the outermost sphere representing the ultimate source or divine realm.
Fundamental Concepts and Beliefs
Logos: The rational principle organizing the cosmos.
Mythos: Narratives explaining the origins and purpose of the universe linked to the gods.
Anthropocentrism: Humans were central to the cosmos, reflecting divine qualities like reason and creativity.
Cosmic Interconnectedness: Plato described the universe in Timaeus as a unified whole, with a world soul energizing it.
Causality and Purpose: The universe was not random; everything had a purpose, whether by design or by inherent nature (Aristotle's final cause).
Eternal Return: Some, like the Stoics, believed in cyclical destructions and renewals of the cosmos.
The Harmony of the Spheres: A mystical concept where celestial bodies produce music only the soul can hear, tying music to cosmic order. (Pythagoras)
The Role of Humans
In ancient Greek cosmology, humans were both observers and participants:
Observers: Through reason and empirical study, humans sought to understand the divine order of the cosmos.
Participants: By aligning their lives with cosmic principles, humans could achieve harmony and virtue, fulfilling their role in the universe.
Reflection of the Divine: Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle argued that humans, endowed with reason, mirrored the rationality of the cosmos.
Microcosm-Macrocosm: Humans were seen as microcosms reflecting the macrocosm of the universe, embodying both the divine (soul) and the material (body).
Moral and Intellectual Ascent: The human purpose was to align with cosmic order through virtue, knowledge, and contemplation.
Myths and Deities
Myths and deities played a critical role in shaping ancient Greek cosmological thought:
Creation Myths: Hesiod’s Theogony describes the universe emerging from Chaos, with Gaia (Earth), Uranus (Sky), and other primordial deities shaping the cosmos. They set the stage for cosmic order.
Atlas: Mythically held up the sky, symbolizing the boundary between Earth and the heavens.
Sun and Moon: Helios, the sun god, drove his chariot across the sky daily, while Selene, the moon goddess, illuminated the night.
Zeus and Order: Zeus, as the king of the gods, upheld cosmic order (kosmos), ensuring harmony between divine and earthly realms.
Titans and Olympians: They played roles in myths explaining celestial phenomena, like Helios (the Sun), Selene (the Moon), and Eos (Dawn). Myths about the Titans’ battle against the Olympians symbolized the triumph of order over chaos.
Star Myths: Stories like Orion and the Pleiades linked human narratives to celestial phenomena, reinforcing the interconnectedness of humanity and the cosmos.
Prometheus: Gave fire to humans, representing the gift of knowledge and the human potential for understanding the cosmos.
The cosmology of ancient Greece up to 50 CE was a sophisticated blend of myth, philosophy, and early science, where the physical universe was intimately connected with the divine and human realms. This worldview not only shaped contemporary thought but laid foundational concepts for later astronomical and philosophical advancements.
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References
Lloyd, G. E. R. Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle. Chatto & Windus.
The Hellenistic Philosophers by A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley. Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
Hesiod. Theogony. Translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White.
Plato. Timaeus. Translated by Donald J. Zeyl.
Plato: Complete Works edited by John M. Cooper. Hackett Publishing Company, 1997.
Aristotle. Metaphysics and On the Heavens. Translated by W. D. Ross.
The Presocratic Philosophers by G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield. Cambridge University Press, 1983.
